Hindu Philosophy

The Nyāya School, founded by sage Gotama (not to be confused with Gautama Buddha), emphasizes correct thinking and valid reasoning.

It is known as tarkashāstra (science of reasoning), pramānashāstra (science of logic), hetuvidyā (science of causes), 

vādavidyā (science of debate), and anviksiki (science of critical study). 

Nyāya philosophy seeks knowledge of reality and recognizes sixteen categories (padarthas) for inquiry, conditions, components, and forms of debate, including pramāṇa (valid means of knowledge), prameya (objects of knowledge), saṁśaya (doubt), prayojana (aim), dṛṣṭānta (example), and others related to reasoning and debate strategies.

In the Vaiseshika system, the formation of the world is understood to be the result of the aggregation of countless and eternal atoms. These atoms are continually aggregating, disintegrating, and re-aggregating by the power of Adrishta (unseen forces). 

The primary aim of the Vaiseshika philosophy is the analysis of experience. This system organizes its inquiries into categories (Padarthas), which are general properties or attributes that can be attributed to existing things. It establishes general conceptions that apply to things known through sensory perception, inference, or authoritative testimony.

The Sankhya system is generally studied alongside the Nyaya philosophy due to their complementary perspectives. It is renowned for its logical and systematic approach, making it a beautiful system of philosophy. Western philosophers have also expressed great admiration for its profound insights and methodological rigor. The Sankhya system is categorically dualistic, clearly distinguishing between the two fundamental realities: Purusha (the knowing Self) and Prakriti (the material world or the objects known). This system firmly denies the notion that anything can be produced out of nothing, emphasizing that all changes and creations are transformations of existing realities. 

By assuming the reality of both Purusha and Prakriti, Sankhya provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the interplay between consciousness and the material universe. 

 Patanjali’s Yoga, known as Ashtanga Yoga or the Yoga of eight limbs, is a comprehensive system that encompasses various aspects of mental and physical discipline.

 It outlines a structured path for achieving mastery over the mind and harnessing its psychic powers. The eight limbs include ethical guidelines (Yamas and Niyamas), physical postures (Asanas), breath control (Pranayama), sensory withdrawal (Pratyahara), concentration (Dharana), meditation (Dhyana), and ultimately, self-realization (Samadhi).

Hatha Yoga, on the other hand, focuses on the physical aspect of the practice, emphasizing methods of bodily control and breath regulation. Through rigorous practice of physical postures and breath techniques, Hatha Yoga aims to prepare the body and mind for deeper spiritual practices. 

The culmination of Hatha Yoga is Raja Yoga, the royal path, which represents the highest state of meditation and consciousness. Raja Yoga integrates the physical discipline of Hatha Yoga with the mental discipline of Ashtanga Yoga, leading to the ultimate goal of spiritual enlightenment and union with the divine.

• Meaning: "Earlier inquiry" (focuses on the earlier part of the Vedas).
  Focus:
  Concerned with the Mantras and Brahmanas (ritual portion of the Vedas).
  Main subject is karma (ritual action, yajnas, sacrifices).
   
• Purpose:
  To justify, interpret, and explain Vedic rituals and their significance.
  Establishes the authority of the Vedas as eternal and self-validating.
   
• Philosophy:
  Ritual actions (karma) are primary means to attain dharma (righteous duty) and prosperity.
   
  • Liberation (moksha) is not its main goal; rather, fulfillment of duties and ritual efficiency.
     
• Key Thinker/Text:
  Jaimini authored the Mimamsa Sutras.
  Outlook: Practical, action-oriented; emphasizes orthopraxy (right action) over metaphysical speculation.
   

• Meaning: "Later inquiry" (focuses on the concluding part of the Vedas).
  Focus:
  Based on the Upanishads (the Jnana-kanda, or knowledge portion of the Vedas).
   
• Main subject is Brahman (ultimate reality), Atman (self), and Moksha (liberation).
   
• Purpose:
  To explore the essence of the Vedas — the highest knowledge leading to liberation.
   
  • Investigates the nature of reality, self, and God.
     
• Philosophy:
  Knowledge (jnana) and realization of the unity of Atman and Brahman lead to liberation.
   
  • Rituals are secondary; inner realization is supreme.
     
• Key Thinker/Text:
  Badarayana (Vyasa) authored the Brahma Sutras.
   
• Outlook: Philosophical, metaphysical, liberation-oriented; emphasizes orthodoxy of thought (right knowledge).